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Environmental ethics is concerned with the morally responsible treatment of non-human nature and enquires into the values which should guide human actions towards nature. This can involve both biologically defined natural objects such as animals, plants and ecosystems, and natural resources such as water, soil or the climate. The focus is often on considerations of whether an intrinsic value should be attributed to living beings or natural objects, and on the moral obligations that people have towards nature.
In animal ethics, a decisive course is set by the question of whether humans owe moral consideration to (certain) animals, thus granting them independent rights, or whether in dealing with some animals certain duties are to be considered, which, in the end, always derive from human interests in these animals. Ethical questions concerning the appropriate use of animals, whether in agriculture for food production or as laboratory animals for research purposes, are of particular social relevance.
Animal ethics and environmental ethics are often closely linked to ethical issues that affect humans. The One Health approach, for instance, calls for an integrative and global approach to health issues taking into account humans, animals and the environment. Zoonoses, i.e. diseases that can be transmitted from animals to humans, are becoming more common as a result of human intervention in ecosystems. As seen in the case of COVID-19, such infectious events can trigger pandemics. Excessive use of antibiotics in animal husbandry is criticised not only because of concerns about animal welfare, but also because it enhances the risks associated with increasing antibiotic resistance in human medical care. Likewise, climate change poses a number of new or intensified health hazards for humans.
